Skip to main content
Reinforcement learning (RL) empowers agents to learn optimal behaviors through trial and error. Unlike supervised or unsupervised learning, RL relies on interaction with an environment and feedback signals (rewards and penalties). The agent’s goal is to maximize cumulative reward over time. In this guide, you’ll learn:
  1. Core Concepts
  2. How Reinforcement Learning Works
  3. Markov Decision Processes (MDPs)
  4. Value-Based Methods
  5. Policy-Based & Actor-Critic Methods
  6. Applications
  7. Challenges
  8. Future Directions

​
1. Core Concepts

An RL agent interacts with an environment in discrete time steps:
TermDescription
AgentThe learner or decision-maker that selects actions
EnvironmentThe system or scenario (real or simulated) with which the agent interacts
State (S)The current configuration of the environment observed by the agent
Action (A)A decision or move the agent makes in a given state
Reward (R)Immediate feedback indicating benefit or cost of an action
Policy (π)Strategy mapping states to action probabilities
Value FunctionEstimates expected cumulative reward of states (or state–action pairs)
Q-FunctionA value function Q(s, a) estimating expected reward for action a in state s
The image is a diagram illustrating the interaction between an agent and an environment in reinforcement learning, showing the flow of state, action, and reward.

​
Agent

The image is a slide titled "Key Concepts – Agent," featuring an outline of a head with a network diagram inside, and a description stating, "The learner or decision-maker that interacts with the environment."

​
Environment

The image is a slide titled "Key Concepts – Environment," describing the environment as a system or scenario an agent interacts with, which can be real-world or simulated. It includes a simple diagram of interconnected devices.

​
State

The image is a slide titled "Key Concepts – State," featuring an icon and a definition: "The current situation or configuration of the environment that the agent observes."

​
Reward

The image explains the concept of "Reward" in a key concepts section, featuring a trophy icon and a description about feedback received after an action.

​
Value Function

The image explains the concept of a "Value Function" in reinforcement learning, describing it as a function that estimates expected rewards to help an agent decide on actions for the highest long-term reward. It includes a graphic of a bar and line chart.

​
Q-Function

The image explains the concept of a Q function, describing it as a value function that estimates the quality of taking a specific action in a particular state, alongside a simple grid illustration.

​
2. How Reinforcement Learning Works

At each time step:
  1. Agent observes state S
  2. Selects action A using policy π
  3. Environment returns reward R and next state S′
  4. Agent updates policy/value estimates to improve future returns
The image is a flowchart explaining how reinforcement learning works, detailing the process of an agent observing the environment, selecting actions, receiving responses, and learning from rewards.

​
3. Markov Decision Processes

Reinforcement learning problems are often formalized as MDPs, defined by:
  • States (S): All possible environment configurations
  • Actions (A): Moves available to the agent
  • Transition Function (T): Probability T(s, a, s′) of moving from state s to s′ after action a
  • Reward Function (R): Immediate reward for each transition
  • Discount Factor (γ): Importance of future rewards (0 ≤ γ ≤ 1)
The image outlines the components of a Markov Decision Process (MDP), including States, Actions, Transition Function, and Reward Function.
The image outlines the components of a Markov Decision Process (MDP), including States, Actions, Transition Function, Reward Function, and Discount Factor.
MDP assumptions include the Markov property: the next state depends only on the current state and action.

​
4. Value-Based Methods

Value-based methods focus on estimating the value of states or actions, then choosing actions that maximize expected return.
The image outlines four value-based methods in reinforcement learning: Value Learning, Action Selection, Q-Learning, and Temporal Difference (TD) Learning, each with a brief description.

​
Q-Learning

Initialize Q-table Q(s, a) ← 0
For each episode:
  Observe state s
  Choose action a (e.g., ε-greedy)
  Execute a, observe reward r and next state s′
  Q(s, a) ← Q(s, a) + α [r + γ maxₐ′ Q(s′, a′) − Q(s, a)]
  s ← s′
Repeat until convergence
The image illustrates the Q-Learning process in value-based methods, showing a flowchart with steps: Initialize Q-Table, Choose an Action, Perform Action, Measure Reward, and Update Q-Table. It highlights that after multiple iterations, a good Q-Table is ready.

​
Temporal Difference Learning

V(s) ← V(s) + α [r + γ V(s′) − V(s)]
The image illustrates a decision tree related to value-based methods in temporal difference (TD) learning, showing states, rewards, and transitions. It includes a formula for updating the value function in TD learning.

​
5. Policy-Based and Actor-Critic Methods

​
Policy-Based Methods

Directly optimize the policy π(a|s) without a separate value function. The policy gradient theorem: 
∇_θ J(θ) ≈ E[∇_θ log π_θ(a|s) · Q^(s, a)]
The image illustrates the policy-based method in reinforcement learning, highlighting that it directly learns the policy mapping states to actions without requiring a value function, and focuses on increasing the probability of high-reward actions. It includes a flow diagram showing the input state to a policy network, which outputs action probabilities.

​
Actor-Critic Methods

Combine policy and value estimation:
  • Actor: Suggests actions using policy π
  • Critic: Evaluates actions via value or TD error
  • Critic’s feedback updates both policy parameters θ and value estimates
The image is a diagram illustrating the Actor-Critic Method in reinforcement learning, showing the interaction between the policy (actor), value function (critic), and the environment. It highlights the flow of state, action, reward, and TD error.

​
6. Applications of Reinforcement Learning

  • Game AI: Deep Q-Networks (DQN) and AlphaGo
The image is a slide titled "Game AI" with two points: "Deep Q-Networks (DQN)" and "Achieved human-level performance in certain games."
  • Robotics: Grasping, locomotion, navigation through trial and error
  • Autonomous Vehicles: Real-time decisions, obstacle avoidance, path planning
The image is a slide titled "Autonomous Vehicles" with three points: learning interactions with the driving environment, helping vehicles make real-time decisions, and navigating with obstacle avoidance and optimal pathfinding.
  • Healthcare: Personalized treatment planning, dosage optimization, surgical assistance

​
7. Challenges

  • Sample Efficiency: RL often demands vast interactions, increasing compute cost.
The image is a slide titled "Sample Efficiency," highlighting two points: the need for numerous interactions to learn effective policies and the computational expense and time consumption involved.
  • Exploration in Large State Spaces: Finding important states without exhaustive search is hard.
The image is a slide titled "Exploration in Large State Spaces," highlighting the challenges of exploring every possible state and the need to discover important states without exhaustive search.
Poorly designed reward functions can lead to unintended or unsafe behaviors. Always validate and test reward shaping thoroughly.
  • Reward Shaping: Crafting appropriate rewards is critical to guide learning.
The image discusses "Reward Shaping," highlighting challenges in designing appropriate reward functions and the potential for suboptimal behavior or unintended consequences.

​
8. Future Directions

  • Hybrid Paradigms: Integrate RL with supervised and unsupervised learning to improve efficiency.
  • Real-World Deployment: Advance safety, scalability, and robustness for finance, logistics, and healthcare.
The image is a slide titled "RL in Real-World Applications," highlighting the need to scale beyond simulations and address challenges in safety, scalability, and robustness.

​
References

Watch Video